HISTORY OF MUSHAF (FINAL POST)

THE QUR’AN IN PRINT

From the sixteenth century, when the printing press with movable type was first used in Europe and later in all parts of the world, the pattern of writing and of printing the Qur’an was further standardised.

There were already printed copies of the Qur’an before this, in the so-called block-print form, and some specimens from as early as the tenth century.

The first mushaf was printed in Venice in 1530, but it was not distributed because the church authorities had it destroyed immediately.(al-Salih, Mabahith fi ulum al-Qur’an, 99)

The next printed mushaf appeared in 1649 in Hamburg. The text is fully vocalised.

Probably the first Qur’an printed by Muslims is the so-called ‘Mulay Usman edition’ of 1787, published in St. Petersburg, Russia, followed by others in Kazan (1828), Persia (1833) and Istanbul (1877)

In 1858, the German orientalist Fluegel produced the so-called ‘Fluegel edition’ of the Qur’an, printed in Arabic, which has since been used by generations of orientalists. This ‘Fluegel edition’ has however a very basic defect: its system of verse numbering is not in accordance with general usage in the Muslim world.

THE EGYPTIAN EDITION

The Qur’anic text in printed form now used widely in the Muslim world and developing into a ‘standard version’, is the so-called ‘Egyptian edition’, also known as the King Fu’ad edition, since it was introduced in Egypt under supervision of Mashyakhat al-Azhar and the committee appointed by King Fu’ad, and its first edition appeared in 1918.

It has been reedited and republished several times since then. This edition is unanimously considered the best edition of the mushaf.(al-Salih, Mabahith fi ulum al-Qur’an, 100)

VARIANT READING OF THE QUR’AN

However, all above-mentioned editions were according to the reading of Hafs from ‘Asim, which is the common reading throughout the Muslim world.

The edition of the mushaf according to the reading of Warsy from Nafi’ appeared for the first time in 1930 in Egypt.(Ma’al masahif,103). This reading is second in common use after Hafs, and it is the common reading in North and West Africa and in some parts of Sudan and Egypt.

The third most common reading in some parts of North Africa is the reading of Qalun from Nafi’. The first printed mushaf according to this reading appeared in Tunisia in 1981 and then in Libya.

Finally, the mushaf was printed for the first time according to the reading of al-Duri from Abu ‘Amr in Sudan and it is used in some parts of Egypt and Chad.

These four masahif represent the common readings for public purposes in the Islamic world today. (please refer to thakhasusiyyah : Mushaf)

However, the remaining canonical readings are known to many readers who have graduated from the institutes of qira’at of al-Azhar and Sudan and many others.

At the present time, new means of recording have been introduced for Qur’an studies, and all canonical reading of the Qur’an have been recorded orally by famous leading Qurra’ in Egypt.(for more information go to Islamweb.net)

HISTORY OF MUSHAF (2)

HARAKAT SYMBOLS
(AL-SYAKL)

The third step in the development of the orthography of the masahif was that undertaken by al-Khalil Ibn Ahmad (d. 170/786), who introduced a new system of symbols (harakat) for i’rab.

It was not applied immediately to the masahif, for the scribes disliked what they called naqt al-shi’r and were unwilling to use this new system in place of naqt i’rab of Abu al-Aswad al-Du’ali, which they were used to and regarded as the way of the salaf.( al-Muhkam, 22,34)

This symbols of al-Khalil Ibn Ahmad eventually dominated and replaced naqt al-i’rab. In addition, he introduced into his new system of orthography the signs of hamz, tashdid, rawm and ishmam.(al-Muhkam, 6)

The consonantal spelling of the Qur’an remained unaltered, because most scholars opposed any change.

They argued that the masahif should remained as they have come to us from the Companions and the orthography is tawqif.(al-Muhkam, 17)

Abu ‘Ubayd, Malik Ibn Anas, Ahmad Ibn Hanbal and al-Bayhaqi are reported to have objected to any change in the orthography of the masahif.(al-Burhan fi ‘ulum al-Qur’an, 1: 379-88)

Al-Zamakshari supported this view when he stated that “the orthography of the masahif is sunnah and should not be changed” (al-Kashshaf, 3:265)

Certain scholars argued, however, that the orthography of the masahif is convention and that people may write their masahif in accordance with the new orthography.

Ibn al-Baqillani is reported to have supported this view, stating that there is no evidence from al-Qur’an or the sunnah and that there is no fixed way of writing.

Thus, in his view, any orthography that gives the correct reading and is easy to follow is permitted. (Tafsir al-Maraghi, 1:13-14)

Ibn Khaldun supported this view and argued that the art of orthography is merely conventional, that it was not perfect when the masahif were compiled.

He also added that there is no sound reason for retaining the old orthography, and that there is no valid argument against writing the masahif according to the new system. (al-Muqaddimah, 457)

Finally, Syeikh al-Islam al-’Izz Ibn ‘Abd Salam maintained that it is not only permitted but necessary that the masahif should be written according to the new orthography so that uneducated people may not fall into error..(al-Burhan fi ‘ulum al-Qur’an, 1: 379)

Al-Zarkashi opted for this view, while adding that the ‘Uthmanic orthography also should be preserved and kept as a precious inheritance.(al-Burhan fi ‘ulum al-Qur’an, 1: 379)

However, according to the general belief, the orthography of the masahif should not be altered since, as Ibn al-Jazari says, this orthography accommodates the variant readings of the Qur’an in accordance with the revelation of the Qur’an in seven ahruf.(Nashr, 1:12)

Al-Dani states that the differences among the masahif in preserving or omitting certain letters and words is because of the need to preserve all the ahruf revealed to the Prophet and received by the Companions. (al-Muqni’, 114)

The most practical way of dealing with this problem may be that adopted in certain masahif intended for learners, in which the words that differ in writing from the comtemporary orthography are explained in the margin.(This method was adopted recently in ‘Abd Jalil ‘Isa, Mushaf al Muyassar and Mushaf al-Shuruq al-Mufassar.)

The next step, after the introduction of vocalization and diacritic points, was the addition of surah titles with an indication of their beginings and endings(al-Muhkam, 16-17), and the place of their revelation (tarikh al-mushaf al-Syarif, 78).

Furthermore, the verses were divided into portions of akhmas (five) and ‘asyar (ten) (tarikh al-mushaf al-Syarif, 14-15).

Then the mushaf was divided into thirty parts (ajza’), each juz’ into two divisions (hizb), and each hizb into four arba’. (al-Burhan, Tarikh al-Mushaf al-Syarif, 78).

In addition, signs were introduced for all the above-mentioned innovations and were introduced in different colors into the masahif in their manuscript forms

However, these colored signs, which existed as long as the masahif were written by hand, could not continue with the appearance of printed texts because of the difficulty in dealing with them in the printing press.

The calligraphy of the masahif remained unchanged in the kufic form until the late fourth century .(al-Kurdi, Tarikh al-Qur’an, 160)

A new development in this field was the introduction of khatt al-thuluth and then naskh, which eventually dominated.

Khatt al-naskh is considered the most beautiful one for the masahif.

Other kinds, like ruq’ah, diwani, farisi, siyaqah and shikastah are unsuitable for the masahif, because the rules dictate that they should not be vocalized, while the masahif should be vocalized to save the reader from committing errors.

HISTORY OF MUSHAF (1)

THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF THE MASAHIF

EARLY MANUSCRIPTS
Writing Material

Early manuscripts of the Qur’an were typically written on animal skin.

In the time of Prophet, parts of the revelation were written on all kinds of materials, such as:

Palm stalks (‘usub)

Thin white stones (likhaf)

Boards – (alwah) a long thin piece of wood

Scapula bones (aktaf)

Saddles (aqtab)-a joint of meat consisting of the two loins

Pieces of cloth ( riqa’)

Potsherds (khazaf)-a broken piece of earthenware – pottery made of baked clay

Shells (sadaf)

Ribs (adla’)

Parchments (raqq)-a heavy paper-like material made from animal skins.

Leather (adim)

The ink was prepared from soot (jelaga)

The masahif contained neither vowels nor diacritic points, and also there are no headings or separations between the surah nor any other kind of division, nor even any formal indication of the end of the verse.

Thus, in this respect these orthography resembled the scripts from which it was derived.

Some scholars have maintained that this lack of vocalization and diacritics was intentional, so that either all seven ahruf or some portion of them could be accommodated.

Among the scholars who shared this view are al-Dani (al-Muhkam fi Naqt al-Masahif, 3), Ibn al-’Arabi (al-’Awasim min al-Qawasim, 2:481), Syeikh al Islam Ibn Taymiyya (Fatawa, 12:100-2) and Ibn al-Jazari (Nashr, 1:32)

This view assumes that vocalization and diacritics were known to the Arabs when they wrote the masahif.

Indeed, many authorities maintain that the Arabs letters had always possessed these features or at least i’jam (dotting).(Subh al-A’sha, 3:151; Miftah al-Sa’adah, 2:89; Kashf al-Zunun, 1:712; al-Dani in his book al-Muhkam, p.35, mentions the pre-islamic Aslam Ibn Khudrah as a pioneer of vocalization and diacritics.

In support of this, we might adduce certain documents that have been dated to the early first century A.H.

The first one dates from the reigns of ‘Umar in 22/643, and in it appear some letters with dotting; i.e, Kha’, dhal, zay, shin and nun.(Grohmann, From the World of Arabic Papyri (Cairo: 1952), 82, 113-14; al-Munajjid, Tarikh al-Khat al-’Arabi, 37-39, 116, 126; al-Jabburi, Asl al-Khat al-’Arabi wa Tatawwuruhu, 107.

The other document is that of al-Ta’if, which dates from the reigns of Mua’wiyyah in 58/677 and in which most letters that require dots are dotted.(Early Islamic Inscriptions Near Taif in Hijaz,JNES, no.7(1948):236-4; al-Munajjid, Tarikh al-Khatt al-’Arabi, 101-03)

The masahif remained unchanged until it was felt necessary to develop their orthography by introducing vocalization to help the readers of the Qur’an read it perfectly and avoid errors in the I’rab, which had been brought about by non-Arab who had embraced Islam.(Al-Muhkam fi al-Masahif, 3-4, 18-19)

During the reign of Mua’wiyah, Ziyad, the governor of Basrah, is reported to have appointed Abu Aswad al-Dua’li to introduce vocalization (naqt al-I’rab) into orthography of the masahif.(Al-Muhkam fi al-Masahif,3-4; al-Aghani, 12:298; 4:160; Al-Awa’il,2;129-30; al-Anbari, Nuzhat al-Alibba’, 8-11. He adds that the authentic view is that Abu al-Aswad was appointed by ‘Ali Ibn Abi Talib)

VOCALIZATION
(Naqt al-I’rab)

Some other riwayahs state that Yahya Ibn Ya’mur or Nasr Ibn ‘Asim was the first to introduce naqt.

Al-Dani states that Yahya and Nasr were probably the first to introduce naqt to the people and they had been taught by Abu al-Aswad, who started naqt.(al-Muhkam,5-6).

Qurtubi adds the name of al Hasan to that of Yahya. (Qurtubi, 1:63).

Suyuthi atrributes it to all of them, but considered the attribution to Abu al-Aswad the most accepted. (Itqan,4:160)

DIACRITIC POINTS
(Naqt al-I’jam)

The second step in the development of the masahif was the introduction of diacritic points.

This took place during the reign of ‘Abd al-Malik Ibn Marwan, who is said to have commanded al-Hajjaj (d. 95 A.H.), governor of Iraq, to appoint certain scholars to distinguish the letters.

Nasr Ibn ‘Asim is said to have been appointed to carry out the task.

He then was the first to introduce naqt al-i’jam, for the same reason as for the first step, naqt al-i’rab which was to facilitate the reading of the masahif.(Al-Muhkam, 18-19)

Vocalization and diacritic were the same, consisting of dots that were distinguished by color: Red for naqt al-i’rab and black for naqt al-i’jam.(Al-Muhkam, 19-20,22-23)